Australia

Australia has a high level of solar energy availability, which is increasingly being utilised by the installation of thermo-electric devices and PV systems and by the application of passive solar design principles.

PV power received much publicity during the Sydney 2000 Olympics with the PV powered lighting pylons along the Olympic Boulevard, the 70 kWp array on the Superdome and the 629 kWp installed on houses in the athletes?village. The emphasis was on developing the world's largest solar-powered suburb, offering a model for future urban development.

Furthermore, the nature of the country is such that its sparsely populated regions are ideal for the installation of off-grid systems to service telecommunications, power supplies, navigation aids and transport route signalling, in addition to domestic applications. Growth during the 1990's recorded an annual average increase of 19.4% in the total installed PV power capacity; at end-1999 it stood at 25 320 kWp of which 92% was off-grid. There has also been strong growth in the installation of grid-connected capacity in recent years.

The Government has recently initiated a number of new measures designed to support renewable energy and, in some cases, PV in particular. The Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 and the Renewable Energy (Electricity) (Charge) Act 2000 are designed to implement the Government's renewable energy target. The measures place a legal liability on wholesale purchasers of electricity to proportionately contribute towards the generation of an additional 9 500 GWh of renewable energy by 2010.

Solar and PV electricity generation, PV renewable stand-alone power supply systems and some solar hot water installations are all energy sources that will be eligible for renewable energy certificates, where the electricity is delivered to a grid, end-point user or directly to a retailer or wholesale buyer. With effect from April 2001, producers of electricity generation from such sources will "earn" the certificates and will subsequently be able to trade them.

Two programmes launched during July 2000 will operate for four years: the Remote Area Power Supply Programme aims to replace diesel-generated electricity with renewable energies in remote areas and the other, the Household PV System Programme, is aimed specifically at the expansion of PV systems. Both the Federal Government and the State Governments offer rebates for the installation of small roof-top and building-integrated systems. Additionally, rebates are offered for community buildings and grants supporting off-grid systems.

Australian PV production capability has been expanded in recent years and is running at full capacity. BP Solar, a major manufacturer, has increased module production at its Homebush plant since providing the solar installations for the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000. Other companies, including new thin-film manufacturers, are planning their entry into the production phase. Currently supply exceeds demand and Australia exports a large part of its production to the Philippines and other countries in Asia.

Canada

The solar resource in Canada is generally very good and compares favourably with other regions of the world, due in part to its "clear-sky" climate. However, with its abundant water power and natural gas resources, the country does not place a high priority on the development of solar energy.

Nevertheless Canada has in excess of 300 remote communities that depend on diesel generators for their electricity. PV systems can assist such remote locations and the bulk of the 5.8 MWp installed capacity (end-1999) is used for off-grid applications where PV is proven to be price-competitive against grid-extension or conventional stand-alone power systems.

The largest individual PV system user in Canada is the Canadian Coast Guard with an estimated 7 000 navigational buoys, beacons and lighthouses using photovoltaic modules.

There are less than 40 grid-connected PV systems installed in Canada with a capacity of only 267 kWp. Since the cost of PV power is still 5-10 times higher than for conventional power available on the grid, it is unattractive for grid-connected applications at this time. Many of the grid-connected systems in Canada were installed as technology demonstration projects. The Canadian PV industry has grown steadily over the past few years, serving both domestic and export markets. In 1999, there were more than 150 PV businesses active in Canada, mostly system suppliers and installers.

The most cost-effective active solar energy technologies are those used for low-temperature heating applications, such as domestic water heating, pool heating and commercial/industrial ventilation air pre-heating.

An estimated 12 000 residential solar hot-water systems and 300 commercial/industrial solar hot-water systems are currently in use and energy production from these systems is estimated at around 100 TJ/year. Following the collapse of oil and gas prices in the mid-1980's and the termination of off-oil government programmes, sales of new systems have slowed down considerably. Approximately 200 new systems are installed annually, representing sales of less than C$ 1 million.

China

Chinese modern utilisation of solar energy began in the mid-1970's: following the first national solar conference in 1975, research into solar technologies and their promotion was increasingly undertaken. The development of solar energy was incorporated into some government programmes but it was not until after the Rio Conference of 1992 that the Government drew up "Agenda of 21st Century in China", concentrating on the renewable energies. In 1995 the State Development and Planning Commission (SDPC), the State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC) and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) formulated a "Program on New and Renewable Energy from 1996-2010".

SDPC, SETC and MOST have launched the "Sunlight Program", also running until 2010 but covering PV systems. It is designed to upgrade the country's manufacturing capability of solar technologies, to establish large-scale PV and PV/hybrid village demonstration schemes, home PV projects for remote areas and to initiate grid-connected PV projects. The "Brightness Project" first launched in 1996 and coming to fruition in 2000 is aimed at providing electricity from solar and wind energy in a number of remote regions.

China is well-endowed with solar energy resources, two-thirds of the territory receiving in excess of 4.6 kWh/m2/day solar radiation. With a large number of remote communities (including many hundreds of islands) without electricity, photovoltaic power generation could play an effective role in serving these areas.

During the 1980抯 China introduced a solar-cell production capacity and in 1996, 1.5 MW solar panels were produced.

In 1996 there were the following installations utilising solar energy:

• 720 million m2 solar green houses;
• 390 000 ha of polyethylene film-covered green houses;
• 62 million m2 solar heated pigsties;
• >8 million m2 (aperture area) of solar water heaters (of which 5.24 million m2 were in rural areas);
• 7.4 million m2 passive solar residential houses (of which 4.56 million m2 were in rural areas);
• 7 MW PV panels;
• 195 000 solar cooker units.

In mid-2000 China announced that it planned to increase its use of renewable energy by 10% per annum, according to its five-year development plan. At the end of 2000, it was announced that, according to a timetable set by the SETC, renewable resources will account for 0.7% of the total commercial energy consumption by end-2005 and for 2% by 2015.

France

The French Agency for Environment and Energy Management (ADEME) is the government organisation charged with promoting the development of renewable energies. In the mid-1990's ADEME was joined by the national electricity utility, Electricité de France (EDF) which added a new impetus to the solar energy sector.

Until a change of policy by the French Government (concerning energy management and the development of renewable energy sources) led to an grid-connected demonstration programme and thence to actual development, solar energy had been harnessed by off-grid installations. At end-1999 there was 9 121 kWp of installed PV power of which 8 772 kWp was off-grid. PV is mostly utilised in rural locations for water pumping and communication devices.

An ADEME action programme that will run until 2006 will, in addition to the promotion of other renewable energies, focus on further research, technological development and demonstration of PV projects. It was planned that following the installation of some 156 kWp of grid-connected "PV roofs" in the late 1990抯, a further 500 kWp built-integrated systems would be completed between 1999 and 2001.

There is some direct use of solar power: at end-1998 there was a total of 460 000 m2 installed.

Germany

Various actions taken by the Federal Government during the past 25 years have ensured that since 1995 Germany has led Europe in installed PV power. Government funding of R,D&D for PV began in 1974 and has continued, with support from the Federal German Environmental Foundation (since 1990). During the 1980's demonstration projects led to more than 70 PV pilot systems becoming operational; the "1 000 Roofs Programme" launched in 1990 was oversubscribed and resulted in the installation of nearly 2 000 systems on domestic roofs between 1991-1996. The "Electricity Feed-in" law (Stromeinspeisungsgesetz) which came into effect in 1991 has been advantageous to electricity production from renewable energies. Furthermore, a new law, the Renewable Energy Act (effective 1 April 2000), is aimed at increasing the share of renewable energy in electricity production from 5% to 10% by 2010, thus providing even greater stimulation of the PV market.

Having grown 42% per annum between 1992 and 1999 installed PV capacity was 69 500 kWp at end-1999, of which on-grid distributed capacity represented 71%. Following the "1 000 Roofs Programme", the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology launched the "100 000 Roofs Programme" in January 1999. Loans are provided at low interest rates (0% in 1999) and repaid over a 10-year period. The target capacity for the Programme is 300 MWp by 2003. The Programme has led to an increased number of companies manufacturing modules and it is planned to expand annual production capability to 70 MWp by end-2001.

India

The Indian Renewable Energy programme is well established, having been constituted under the Department of Science and Technology before being transferred to the newly-created Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1982. The Department was upgraded to the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992 and MNES has since worked with the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA - created in 1987), to accelerate the momentum of renewable energy development. The promotion has been achieved through R&D, demonstration projects, government subsidy programmes, programmes based on cost recovery supported by IREDA and also private sector projects.

India receives a good level of solar radiation, the daily incidence ranging from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 depending on location. Solar thermal and solar photovoltaic technologies are both encompassed by the Solar Energy Programme that is being implemented by the MNES. The Programme, regarded as one of the largest in the world, plans to utilise India's estimated solar power potential of 20 MW/km2 and 35 MW/km2 solar thermal. The country has also developed a substantial manufacturing capability, becoming a lead producer in the developing world.

The principal objective of the Solar Thermal Programme is the market development and commercialisation of solar water heaters, solar cookers etc. At the present time the installed systems account for some 500 000 m2 collector area and some 485 000 solar cookers.

Solar water heating has been applied in a wide variety of circumstances from individual residences to hotels to industrial processes. The near-future potential for such systems is around 30 million m2 of collector area. Solar air heating has been utilised in various parts of the country for drying agricultural produce and in timber kilns. Solar stills have been employed in large numbers to supply distilled water in rural hospitals, battery-charging stations and for the supply of drinking water in remote arid zones.

The MNES has been promoting the sales of box solar cookers since the early 1980's. This type of cooker is designed to prepare food for up to 4-5 people and can be supplied with or without electrical back-up. However, the Dish Solar Cooker designed for 10-15 people and the Community Solar Cooker for 35-40 people have also been developed. In March 1999 the world's largest Solar Steam Cooking System was installed at Mount Abu, Rajasthan. It is a hybrid system with back-up oil-fired boilers and is designed to prepare food for 10 000 people.

There is also a separate Solar Buildings Programme aimed at creating an awareness of the potential for solar-efficient buildings. The passive solar design concept is a climate-responsive architectural practice that is now being researched, developed and implemented throughout the country.

During 1999, a proposal for a 140 MW integrated solar combined-cycle power project with a solar thermal power capacity of 35 MW was agreed. The plant, based on the parabolic trough collector technology, is to be located in the Jodhpur district of Rajasthan and will have supplementary firing by naphtha/gas on sunless days. It is due for completion by end-2002.

A Solar PV Programme has been developed by the MNES for the past two decades, aimed particularly at rural and remote areas. To date approximately 44 MW have been installed (representing some 750 000 systems), of which street lighting and solar lanterns account for 2.8 MW each, home lighting systems for 4.3 MW, water pumps for 4.2 MW, telecommunications for 14.7 MW, power plants for 2.2 MW and other applications for 12.5 MW. Exports account for another 13.5 MW.

The MNES has instituted a plan for establishing solar PV power generation of 1 MW for use in specialised applications: voltage support at rural sub-stations and peak shaving in urban centres. At the present time 15 grid-interactive solar PV power projects have been installed in seven states and a further 10 are under construction.

Indonesia

The archipelago of Indonesia comprises over 17 000 islands (according to the latest count using satellite mapping) of which approximately 6 000 are inhabited. Difficulties in extending the national grid across the islands to the widely-dispersed population meant that in 1995 only about 58% of the country's 62 000 villages were electrified. Historically, areas that could not be supplied with conventional electricity from the national grid have relied upon hydro-electric and stand-alone diesel generators to power mini-grids, or used kerosine for lighting.

Indonesia's situation close to the equator and its annual average insolation level make it highly suitable for the installation of solar energy devices, especially for the huge rural population and in remote areas. PV systems were first demonstrated in 1979 through a water-pumping project and the development of solar energy has since been supported by the Government, with assistance from the World Bank and foreign aid agencies.

The first successful demonstration of the rural electrification of an Indonesian village using PV occurred in 1989 in Sukatani (Java). The installation which comprised 85 solar home systems (SHS), seven public systems and 15 street lights, led to the electrification of a second village, Lebak, in which a further 500 systems were installed.

The 50 MWp Programme, originally devised in 1992 continues to progress. In 1997 the government set a target of 50 MWp of PV by 2005, aiming to install one million SHS nationwide. The Agency for Application and Assessment of Technology, which coordinates all PV sub-programmes under the 50 MWp programme, provides favourable financing conditions, usually in collaboration with foreign donors.

A 1993 programme for rural medical clinics where kerosine-powered lighting and refrigeration facilities have been replaced by PV modules has continued. By 1999 some 5 500 clinics had been converted, bringing safely stored vaccines and reliable radio communications to remote areas.

The government has also set targets for the installation of PV systems for a variety of applications: pumping stations for rural clean water supplies, TV repeaters, fishing boat lighting, grid-interconnected housing etc.

Many local PV projects are sourced through government-instituted village cooperatives (KUDs). The KUDs participate in the installation, maintain the systems thereafter, collect payments and act on behalf of the individual end-users with banks and government.

Israel

With an annual incident solar irradiance of approximately 2 000 kWh/m2 and few natural energy resources, Israel has pioneered the use of solar energy. Since the early 1970抯 the Israeli Government has dedicated much time and money to R&D of solar energy technologies and on demonstration programmes. Nationally, solar power has been harnessed through both photovoltaic modules and solar domestic hot water systems although it is the latter technology that has brought Israel to the forefront of global development.

The law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in Israel was introduced in 1980. The "Solar Law" is an amalgam of different legislative measures, all designed to lay down national standards and regulations. The Planning and Building Law requires the installation of solar water heaters for all new buildings (including residential buildings, hotels and institutions, but not industrial buildings, workshops, hospitals or high-rise buildings in excess of 27 m), dictating the size of the installation required for a particular type of building; the Land Law governs solar installations in existing multi-apartment buildings and the Supervision of Commodities and Services Law provides governmental supervision of the quality of installations and their guarantees. Furthermore, Israel is the only country in the world that legally requires the education of energy managers to include solar energy.

During 1997 in excess of 80% of Israeli families had solar water heaters, representing over 1.3 million installations. The solar contribution was equivalent to 21% of the electricity used by the domestic sector, 5.2 % of national electricity consumption and 3% of Israel's primary energy consumption.

In addition to being used extensively in the domestic sector, solar energy is also used for a variety of agricultural purposes (greenhouses, drying and water heating), minerals extraction at the Dead Sea Works and water heating/steam production in many educational/commercial buildings.

At end-1999 there were 401 kWp of installed PV power, of which 381 kWp was off-grid. Approximately half of the applications are lighting systems and about 15% are remote electrification systems. However, the extensive national grid precludes the same penetration by PV as has been enjoyed by solar water systems. There is no PV module manufacturing capability within the country and currently most activity is concentrated on maintaining the technical excellence that has been achieved through academic research.

The Ministry of National Infrastructures estimates that by 2025 solar water heaters will account for 2.4% of the estimated national energy consumption, solar houses for 0.1%, concentrating collectors for 0.5%, solar towers for 0.3% and PV for 0.03%.

Italy

Italy has been involved with all aspects of the development of photovoltaic energy since the early 1980's. Research on materials and power plant operation and analysis have been undertaken and by end-1994 the country was ranked first in Europe with 14.1 MWp of installed PV capacity. However, during the second half of the 1990's, the coincidence of the German Federal Government's strong support of its solar energy sector together with the privatisation of Italy's electricity industry and the changing role of governmental bodies resulted in rapidly increasing German capacity and only very modest growth in Italy. Whilst Germany achieved an increase of 52 MWp between end-1995 and end-1999, Italy only increased its installed capacity by 3 MWp. Moreover, exports of modules also declined. By end-1999 Italy's installed capacity stood at 18.5 MWp.

The Vasto plant, consisting of a 1 MWp array, financed by the VALOREN Project of the European Union and the Italian region of Abruzzo was the first large modular PV power plant in Europe. The 3.3 MWp PV at Serre in central southern Italy, in operation since mid-1994, is the largest grid-connected PV power station in Europe.

The government originally launched its 5-year "10 000 roof-top" programme in 1998 but delays followed and it finally got under way in March 2001. The programme foresees the rationalisation of PV plants in the range of 1-50 kWp, grid-connected and integrated on roofs and facades. It will be implemented in two phases. It is expected that the first phase will see 10 000 systems, totalling 50 MWp and, depending on the results of this phase, a second phase for an additional 40 000 systems totalling 200 MWp. During 2001 three projects will be implemented: PV plants for public buildings, for private customers and for integration in large buildings with special architectural features. During 2000, 1 MWp installed capacity was added and it expected that a further 5 MWp will be added in 2001 and 10 MWp in 2002.

Communities, isolated from a local grid or where environmental restrictions apply, have been served by the introduction of off-grid installations (59% of total capacity at end-1999). On-grid centralised installations accounted for 36% of installed capacity at end-1999 and on-grid distributed for 5%.

The country possesses one of the largest PV module manufacturers in Europe: Eurosolare - with a production capacity of approximately 2.7 MWp/year per shift.

At the end of 2000 a large solar thermal power programme was launched in Italy.

Japan

The Japanese Government instituted its Sunshine Project in answer to the problems created by the oil crises of the 1970's. In 1993, as a way to efficiently overcome barriers related to new energy, the New Sunshine Program (NSS) was launched. This programme has been conducted under the aegis of the Agency of Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) in the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI, formerly MITI) and includes an R&D renewable energy programme that extends to 2010. The R&D policies for the PV sector are designed to lead to technologies for a self-perpetuating market: the promotion of low-cost mass production, in turn promoting greater demand and economies of scale, in turn creating a stable market.

Following the 1997 enactment of The Law for New Energy Promotion Introduction, the Advisory Committee for Energy (an advisory body of METI) launched in mid-1998 The Total Primary Energy Supply Outlook. The Outlook specifies that the target for installed PV is 5 000 MW by 2010. During 1999 a further New Energy Technology Strategy was launched and a New Energy Subcommittee was established. The work being undertaken by the various government agencies is designed to bring about an increasing public awareness of PV.

METI is encouraging the growth of PV at a governmental and industrial level as well as in the residential sector - to this end several large demonstration programmes have been put in place. The Residential PV System Dissemination Program aims to subsidise the PV installation cost for individuals with the proviso that they perceive the significance of PV and provide the operational data of their PV system. Between 1994 and 1998, PV systems were installed on 15 596 houses with a further 17 396 houses accepted in 1999 under this programme. When these are installed the total capacity will be 121.2 MWp. Residential PV systems are typically 3-5 kWp and account for over 80% of the demand for PV in Japan. The incentives resulted in an annual average increase of 41% between 1992 and 1999 for installed PV power: as at end-1999 Japan lead the world with 205 300 kWp of which 145 500 kWp was on-grid distributed capacity.

In 1999 the Ministry of Construction authorised PV modules as roofing materials and regional "Solar-town" projects are coming to fruition.

Kenya

It was the search for alternative energy sources following the oil crises of the 1970's, the favourable climatic conditions for solar technologies and the slow progress of the Rural Electrification Plan of 1973 and the 1994 Rural Electrification Master Plan that led to the development of PV systems in Kenya. With a very large percentage of the urban population and almost all of the rural population having no access to a public supply of electricity, solar-based power could play a significant role in redressing the energy supply/demand picture, raising living standards and stimulating the economy.

In the early phase of growth of the Kenyan PV market, the majority of the components for the systems were imported with the help of foreign donor aid. During the 1980's a domestic manufacturing expertise was gradually developed which helped to reduce the prices for consumers and boosted sales of PV systems. However, during the same period, whilst worldwide technological improvements contributed to steadily falling prices for PV components, the political situation precipitated the withholding of donor aid from Kenya. From 1992 prices increased dramatically, inflation was rampant and PV sales were very badly affected. The uncertain financial situation persisted until the mid 1990's but following the stabilisation of the currency, the market began to recover, although government duties and taxes continued to complicate the situation.

Potentially a very large market for PV systems exists in Kenya, but to date implementation has been confined to affluent sections of society. Nevertheless, it was reported in 1996 that about 40 000 - 60 000 households had installed solar energy systems, comprising more than 1 MWp of PV power. In addition to such domestic installations, over the past ten years several hundred PV refrigerators have been installed for the safe storage of vaccines, several water pumping projects have been initiated and a programme to make low-cost solar lanterns widely available has been started.

Korea (Republic)

The Government actively began to advance renewable energies when the "Promotion Act for the New and Renewable Sources of Energy (NRSE) Development" was passed in 1987. However, in order to enhance the development of NRSE, the law was amended in late-1997 and became the "Promotion Act for Development, Utilisation and Dissemination of NRSE". The National PV Program was incorporated into the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy's (MOCIE) "10 Year Development Plan for Energy Technology, 1997-2006". The goal of the Plan is to increase the share of NRSE to 2% of total energy consumption by 2006. The economic problems of the late-1990's resulted in a reduction in the R,D&D budgets but all aspects of the photovoltaic technology sector have been given the highest priority.

At end-1999 there were 3 459 kWp of installed PV power of which 92% was off-grid. These applications, which predominated until 1997, include installations for private residences, telecommunications, lighthouses, public lighting, road and aviation signalling etc. In addition, PV iesel hybrid systems have been installed in isolated houses and on remote islands. In recent years government interest appears to have shifted to grid-connected systems and various demonstration projects and field tests have taken place.

Direct use of solar energy is also utilised and by end-1999 in excess of 200 000 domestic hot water systems, together with 157 large-scale hot water systems, were in use.

Mexico

Mexico's average solar energy resource is estimated at 5 kWh/m2/day. There are currently approximately 50 000 isolated PV systems installed throughout the country in order to provide electricity to rural areas separated from the grid. They are mainly used for pumping and domestic and public lighting and also for powering telephones, microwave repeaters and signalling systems (both marine and terrestrial). At end-1999 there were 328 000 m2 of flat plate solar collectors installed, mainly used for water heating for various purposes.

Netherlands

The Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs is responsible for policies regulating renewable energies and as part of its Towards a Renewable Energy Policy document, has implemented programmes that will promote the development of both photovoltaic solar energy and thermal solar energy.

The aims of the National Multi-year Research Programme on Solar Energy (Photovoltaic cells) are:

• improving the price-performance ratio by 300% by 2000;
• a solid industrial base and expansion of PV cell technology;
• a healthy market for stand-alone PV systems;
• knowledge of PC cell applications in the built environment;
• broader public support.

In order to translate these aims into practice, it is hoped that the Programme's budget will provide the wherewithal for an effective balance between R&D on the one side and demonstration projects and commercialisation on the other.

In April 1997 a PV energy covenant was signed (with further signatories in 1998 and 1999) by industrial bodies, utilities, the R&D sector and Government to make an effective contribution to the development of PV energy. Originally designed to run until 2000, a new covenant is being prepared for the period 2001-2007. It will focus on further broadening support for PV energy.

In 1997 the Government published an Action Programme for the period 1997-2000. The programme was aimed at increasing the share of renewable energy in the national energy supply to 3% in 2000 and 10% in 2020. The Ministry stipulated certain goals for the installation of PV: 12.5 MWp by 2000, 250 MWp by 2010 and about 1 500 MWp by 2020. At end 1999 installed PV capacity stood at 9.2 MWp of which 58% was on-grid distributed.

The aims of the National Multi-year Programme on the Thermal Conversion of Solar Energy 1996-2000 are:

• achieving an increase in the number of solar boilers installed of at least 80 000 by 2000;
• preparing for the market launch of other active thermal solar energy applications;
• ensuring that the optimum use of passive solar energy is widely applied in the construction and renovation of residential dwellings and other buildings.

To encourage the expansion in the numbers of solar boilers installed, the Ministry operates a subsidy scheme and also, like the energy covenant for PV, a covenant for solar boilers was signed at the beginning of 1999. It will run until the end of 2001 with an option to extend it to 2007. The signatories have undertaken to create a market which will enable the installation of 400 000 solar boilers by 2010. The participating companies have committed themselves to installing more than 40 000 additional solar boilers by the end of 2000 and almost 65 000 solar boilers by 2002.

Norway

The majority of Norway's commercial solar market consists of off-grid PV systems. At end-1999 a total of about 75 000 systems had been installed, mostly in recreational cabins. The panels, used for re-charging batteries for lighting, are typically 50-60 W in size.

In addition, the Norwegian coastal service has installed some 2 200 solar beacons along the coast. It is planned that all off-grid lighthouses will be thus supplied in the future.

South Africa

The annual global solar radiation average received by South Africa is approximately 5.5 kWh/m2/day, one of the highest national levels in the world. The resource began to be utilised to a limited extent from the early 1980's, when a PV industry was established. PV modules are now widely used for powering the telecommunications network and are also applied in small-scale remote stand-alone power supplies in domestic situations, game farms, water pumping etc.

In 1994 the newly elected government of national unity launched their Reconstruction & Development Programme and thereby accelerated the trend for PV installations. In the same year Eskom undertook to electrify 1.75 million homes by 2000: a figure that was achieved by end-1999. A three-year target for a further 600 000 connections was then set. In a country where a vast number of households are too distant to be considered for an interconnection to the grid, PV systems are a cost-effective solution. At the beginning of 1999 the first Powerhouse system in the world抯 largest commercial solar rural electrification project was launched in the Eastern Cape. The project, a joint venture between Eskom and Shell Renewables, will provide a solar panel, a charge-controlled battery and a security and metering unit for 50 000 homes.

At the beginning of 2000, the Department of Minerals and Energy published a consultative draft document, Implementation Strategy for Renewable Energy in South Africa. Within the overall renewable energy scene for the short to medium term, the Strategy outlined the main thrusts for solar energy:

• the launching of a non-grid electrification programme as an integral element of the National Electrification Programme. Photovoltaic solar home systems should be installed in at least 1.5 million homes within 10 years with a continuance of the project thereafter. Electrification projects already under way for rural schools and health clinics would be integrated into the programme;

• the introduction and use of passive solar building design so that, in particular, houses being built as part of the national housing programme could achieve greater thermal efficiency. In addition to new housing, it is planned to extend better design to commercial and government buildings;

• the development and implementation of a long-term programme aimed at the widespread use of solar water heating, thus reducing the need for additional power plants;

• the long-term commercial dissemination of solar cookers;

• the South African technological base is being used to study the possible development of solar thermal power generation in the Northern Cape area. Eskom (together with the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, the national, provincial and Namibian governments) has already conducted preliminary studies of Solar Trough technology, Sterling Dish technology and Solar Power Tower technology. It is envisaged that a feasibility study will be undertaken on a grid-connected Solar Thermal installation.

Spain

A Renewable Energy Programme 1991-2000 that set a target of 2.5 MW installed PV solar energy was far exceeded even before its final year, but at the present time solar energy still does not contribute very significantly to Spain's total electricity generation. However, several measures are in place for renewable energy (including solar power) to be boosted: a Royal Decree approved at the end of 1998 specifies the subsidies to be granted to electrical power generated from renewable energies and a further Royal Decree approved during September 2000 defines the conditions attached to the operation of PV cells connected to the low-tension grid.

In recent years Spain has been active on two fronts in the development of solar energy - the installation of PV power and the development of cells, modules and systems. In the latter development, Spain joins Germany and France as the European leaders in the manufacturing process. Research and development in the design and application of PV technology are conducted extensively by Spanish universities, research institutes and manufacturing companies.

At end-1999 Spanish installed PV capacity stood at about 9 MWp, approximately level with the Netherlands and France. These three countries represent the second rank behind the European leaders (Germany, Italy and Switzerland). Spanish installed capacity consisted of 77% off-grid, 16% on-grid centralised and 7% on-grid distributed. One particular type of installation is helping to revitalise rural parts of the country: the establishment in isolated communities of stand-alone PV power plants, (consisting of, for example, a 10 kWp array, a 180 kWh battery bank and a power conditioner) which have their electricity distributed via micro-grids. During installation, other domestic services can be supplied?the sites that would otherwise have become depopulated are now viable once more.

Switzerland

The Swiss Government launched a 10-year national programme in November 1990, known as Energy 2000. As part of the programme the Government intended to actively promote the advantages of both solar energy systems and the employment of passive heating. At the beginning of Energy 2000, an investment of 150 million Swiss Francs per year was planned by the confederation for the programme and it was intended that by 2000 some 50 MWp of grid-connected PV would have been installed. However, Parliament decided to reduce the credit to only 50 million Swiss Francs per year and to date, all attempts to increase this sum have failed. As a result in this reduction, only about one quarter of the PV target has actually been achieved.

In September 2000 a public referendum took place on the introduction of a levy on non-renewable energy and a longer-term ecological tax reform. However, a rise in fuel prices prior to the referendum contributed to only 48% of the electorate voting in favour. The outcome of the referendum will undoubtedly result in a slow-down of the Government's once ambitious programme.

Thailand

The Thai Government has for many years recognised the need to diversify its energy supplies and the energy Master Plan prepared during the 1980's has been developed under successive five-year plans. The New and Renewable Energy Programme under the National Energy Policy Office's (NEPO) Energy Conservation Promotion Programme states that renewable energy is expected to play a major role in the future.

Owing to the country's location near the equator, the consequent good level of insolation is utilised for both solar thermal and solar PV installations.

Government agencies are involved in the PV sector and those with substantial PV installations are: the Department of Energy Development and Promotion (DEDP), Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), the Telephone Organisation of Thailand (TOT), the Public Work Department (PWD), the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Public Health.

The Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) has over the years played a central role in the development of solar energy systems, although the first PV applications were installed in 1976 by the Ministry of Public Health and the Medical Volunteers Foundation at rural health stations for communications equipment.

By end-1999 about 5 MWp of PV modules had been installed in the country, of which TOT had 1 MWp installed for use in microwave repeaters, PWD had 1.5 MWp for water pumping systems (both for domestic and irrigation) and the Ministry of Education had some 20 kWp installed in remote schools.

EGAT has also developed stand-alone projects, grid-connected systems and hybrid hydro-PV, diesel-PV and wind-PV systems. In recent years EGAT has collaborated with NEPO to implement a rooftop PV project. Following the successful installation of PV panels on 10 households, 100 more were selected and the programme has now been expanded to include government buildings.

Currently some 50 000 m2 of flat-plate collectors have been installed on commercial buildings, hospitals and private residences and solar thermal capacity is expanding at a rate of some 3 000 ?3 500 m2 of solar water heaters per year.

EGAT is supporting an R&D programme for concentrated solar collector and storage systems and NEPO is preparing a solar hot water programme for hotels, resorts and hospitals.

United States Of America

The US Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy directs the National PV Program through its Office of Solar Energy Technologies.

Early in 1998 the Million Solar Roofs Initiative was launched: the goal being to put a million solar systems (PV units or thermal systems) on the roofs of commercial and residential building by 2010. Although Federal legislation approving tax credits for such installations has not yet been passed, the DOE is awarding grants to State and Local Partnerships in order to assist the financing and deployment of such systems. In addition, net metering (a device to facilitate accounting for electricity produced from a PV system) has been introduced into 30 states. As at end-June 2001, it is estimated that at least 140 000 solar energy systems had been installed in the USA, of which 100 000 are pool heaters, 38 000 are hot water systems and
2 000 are PV (solar electric systems).

During 1999 the PV industry in the USA drew up an Industry Roadmap with the aim of setting out the strategies and goals for PV in the period to 2020. Its strategies are:

• to maintain the worldwide technological leadership that the US enjoys;
• to achieve economic competitiveness with conventional technologies;
• to maintain a sustained market and PV production growth;
• to make the industry profitable and attractive to investors.

Its goals are:

• to maintain a 25% annual production growth rate;
• during 2020, to ship approximately 7 GWp of PV for installation worldwide, 3.2 GWp of which will be used in domestic installations;
• to decrease costs to the end-user (including costs for operation and maintenance) to US$ 3 per Watt AC by 2010 and to approximately US$ 1.50 per Watt AC by 2020.

At the beginning of 2000, and in conjunction with the Roadmap, The National Center for Photovoltaics (NCPV) released its report, "Photovoltaics ?Energy for the New Millennium: The National Photovoltaics Program Plan 2000-2004".